Countries of the World: 1900



The Kingdom of Afganistan
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The Austro-Hungarian Empire
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The Kingdom of Belgium
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The Republic of Brazil
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The Principality of Bulgaria
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The French Third Republic
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The German Empire
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The Kingdom of Italy
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The Empire of Japan
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The Republic of Mexico
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The Kingdom of the Netherlands
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The Ottoman Empire
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The Russian Empire
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The Kingdom of Serbia
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The Union of South Africa
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The Kingdom of Spain
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The Kingdom of Sweden-Norway
Player: The Nexerus

The United States of America
Player: Vaexa

República dos Estados Unidos do Brasil

President Campos Sales' Response to the Boxer Rebellion, the Second Boer War, the Columbian Civil War, and the Philippine-American War.

It saddens me that there are so many wars, a rebellion, and a civil war to top it all off at the start of the New Year. But, that's what you get for running a nation, out of control people, who think that they can run a god damn country, and the thinking of wanting so many islands. As I have spoke and wrote to the Columbian president, Manuel Marroquín, and I said to him these words. “We'll support your men to fight against those rebels by giving the men supplies and offering the citizen, a place of safe haven within Brazil.” He agreed and left the room to tell the others. I'm grateful to help out Manuel to fight those rebels and I also request that other South America nations help Coulumbian out with the civil war and America to help as well.

And now we are talking about the Boxer Rebellion, we might help out with the Chinese, but only if we could talk first before officially stalemating anything. As for sides, I would wise to crush the rebels in Asia as well. Onto the Second Boer War, since it's being fought between the Boer and the United Kingdoms and I say that I'll have to take to the British before officially statement anything as well. I would like to help out the British defend its lands over in Africa, but we must talk before statement anything

And finally, I would like to talk about the Philippine-American War, as I have said for the Boxer Rebellion and the Second Boer War; I will take the side on the country, not the rebel. I'll have to talk to America before officially statement anything also. Now, I hope that the talks go well and we can make a deal, that we will show support by sending supplies and even troops, if it comes to that. But as always, we will have to wait before officially statements come out of my office.

I would like to wise everyone a safe and happy day. [The journalists began questioning the President before he exited out of the room, answering no questions at all].

[All of the letter, speeches, and articles were translated by the Pernambuco Daily and Journal of the Brazil].[/i]

Amir Abdur Rahman Khan’s Islamic New Year’s speech, as recorded and as read out to people all over Afghanistan in the first Friday sermon of the new year

It has been twenty years since the Will of God was made manifest to us and our glorious nation was freed from the suffering of war and chaos. It has been twenty years since the people and tribes of Afghanistan raised me above them, with God’s Will, and pledged their allegiance to the one, Islamic Amir of Afghanistan.

When I first laid my eyes upon you all, and upon this nation, all those years ago, it was with great sadness that I looked, but also with great hope. For I saw a people who had been battered by the years, by wars and foreign attacks against us. I saw a people who had been let down by one ruler after another, crushed by one invader after another, and impoverished by one deteriorating year after another. But I witnessed a people who had not lost hope, I witnessed tigers who were strong in faith and intellect, prepared to lash out against all enemies. I looked towards you then, as I do now, and you looked towards me, seeing in me the salvation which all prayed for through all the dark years. You put your trust in me, pledged your allegiance to me, and I readily took this weighty burden upon my shoulders, for the sake of my nation and my people, for all of you who are my brethren and loved ones. I pray to the Almighty God that I have done right by you and that today you see an Afghanistan prepared to rise from the ashes and the ruins.

Where before we were nothing but separate, warring cities and tribes, today we are unified as one nation, one people, with one Amir, Khan and Chief – I did not impose myself upon you, but it was you who came to me, and I who willingly serve my people. These last twenty years have been difficult, they have been difficult for you as much as they have been for me. We have battled and endeavoured to create a stable nation, a more centralised nation with an all-reaching government, a nation worthy of all Afghans. Today I command in Kabul and those in Herat obey, I speak in Kandahar and those in Mazar-i-Sharif hear. It was not always so, and in this year, this centralised nation will take its final form, so that we can turn a new page in our nation’s history.

We will no longer be riddled with worries of instability and insurgencies, no, we have become more elevated. We will now work towards the progress of our nation and not simply keeping it intact, we will work towards the happiness and enrichment of our people, we will work towards building a Muslim nation like that of our predecessors, the Timurids and the Mughal, the Umayyads and the Abbasids and the Mamelukes; we will work towards creating the New Muslim State, the reincarnation of the divine Rashidun Caliphate, that our people may rise from the darkness of ignorance and into the light of knowledge and wisdom and enlightenment.

My people, I have never hidden anything from you, when I first made contact with the British, it was before all of you that I wrote the letter, and your approval that I sought, and I do not hide from you that weak grows my body which once was strong, which once rode into battle and brought down our foes. The Almighty God has written for each soul its prescribed date, and none can hide or run from it. A new epoch has begun for our rising nation, but perhaps the Almighty may see it fitting that a new generation oversee this new epoch. So, remember the words of God should my soul depart today, tomorrow or in a year, and remember the words of God whether I remain with you or ascend to the Almighty:
“And hold fast, all together, by the rope which Allah (stretches out for you), and be not divided among yourselves; and remember with gratitude Allah's favour on you; for ye were enemies and He joined your hearts in love, so that by His Grace, ye became brethren”
Keep these verses of the Almighty God always in your heart, and do not become divided! My people, I warn you of the calamities of division, for it is through the cracks that the devils creep, and through them that our defeat emerges, and through them that we fall into the abyss of darkness and destruction. Peace and eternal unity be upon you all, and the blessings and mercy of the Most High.

Abdur Rahman Khan, By the Will and Might of the Most High, the Iron Amir of the Emirate of Afghanistan, Light of the Nation and Religion, Khan of the Tribes

Kingdom of the Netherlands

As we enter into the 20th century we are in a world increasingly filled by war and conflict. From the Philippine-American War and the Boxer Rebellion in Asia, to the 2nd Boer War in Africa, and finally ending with the Colombian Civil War in the Americas, it seems we can never have a few years where there is lasting peace. Epically as the Greater Powers fight over spheres of influence and who truly is dominate in the grand theater that is Europe.

So in the interests of maintaing Dutch Sovereignty and avoiding conflict the Kingdom of the Netherlands officially declares a policy of armed neutrality. We will continue looking to the future of the Dutch people, and hoping that we may see a world filled with lasting peace, but it is not likely anytime soon.

-Queen Wilhelmina

With the New Year arrived, it is time for us more than ever to appreciate what we have. In the past our nation and people were ridiculed, but in the time you have given me and our government, our nation’s name is now spoken with pride and respect. The yoke of the past has been swept away and at last Mexico is taking its rightful place on the world stage. Yet we must be vigilant, less we too fall like so many others. In Colombia the Civil War that has already claimed the lives of so many continues. We extend our sympathies to the people of that war stricken and offer Mexico as a neutral ground for diplomacy between both parties.

Mexico stands ready to enter this century strong, modern and for the first time in decades, united! God is with us! God stands with Mexico!

- President Porfirio Díaz

Reino de España. Speech by his royal majesty King Alfonso XIII

"As we enter the 20th century it is unfortunate to see so much conflict to occur in such a short span of time, from the Boxer rebellion and the Philipine-American war in Asia, to the Colombian civil war in the Americas, and the 2nd Boer war in South Africa. These violent wars have shown that the world is not peacefully and that killing others is an addiction that cannot easily be stoped. Though even through this Spain will prevail through these tyrannical times and will survive the outburst of violence in this world that has ruined many great nations in the past.

And even through the flames of destruction we shall fight on until the end if war must come to us, but we will ensure that peace is maintained in Europe and will accomplish these things with any means necessary. I pray that these dire times come to an end and peace is restored in Asia, the Americas, And Africa."

-King Alfonso XIII 1900

Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek

"Several times I have personally reached out to our Brethren still in the Cape, and several times I have been rejected. One common theme goes through these.

In spite of our extraordinary victories, they tell us, gentlemen, that we are weak; unable to defeat so formidable an adversary. But when shall we be more able? Will it be the next week, or the next year? Will it be when we are totally disarmed, and with a British guard quartered in every house? Shall we strengthen through surrender? Shall we derive the means of effectual resistance through kneeling at the feet of Victoria, hoping she shall bestow upon us our independence of the goodness of her heart?

We are weak only if we fail to make proper use of those means which God has given us. The hundreds of thousands of people, armed in the holy cause of liberty, and in such terrain as ours, are invincible by any force which our enemy can send against us. The battle, gentlemen, is not to the strong alone; it is to the vigilant, the active, the brave. Besides,
we have no election; If we were weak enough to desire it, it is now too late to turn back. The chains of our captivity are forged! Their clanking may be heard on the plains of Natal! The war is begun--and let it come!

Do not believe, brethren, that the present power of the British is fixed and immutable like that of a god, seated upon a throne on Olympus, capable of casting a lightning bolt and ending us with an angry glare, and by whose sufferance alone we have heretofore had our independence. They are hated, and feared and envied even by those who now seem devoted to them. One must assume that even their allies are subject to the same passions as any other men. At present, however, all these feelings are repressed and have no outlet. However, when half a million British troops have been brutishly chasing our nimble commandos across the veld for years to no avail, will the Irish stay quiet? When their spirit is broken, will the Sepoy continue to tolerate their rule? When their coffers are empty, will the Germans not act?

Twenty years ago, before we were blessed with the mines, a thousand British dead were all it took for us to convince them subjugating us was not worth the exertion. Might God convince them similarly, as I swear to Him I will sign no surrender. If these hands still move, if I can still raise my arms, I will hold a rifle."

~Louis Botha, a speech sent by letter to the Volksraad.

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
An announcement from the Foreign Office

The Foreign Office is delighted to have overseen the successful conclusion of negotiations between the British Empire and the states of Japan and Brazil in the last few months, and would therefore be pleased to introduce and ratify the following treaties:

HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY, THE EMPEROR AND AUTOCRAT OF ALL THE RUSSIAS

To all those who read this message, or hear it read: Salutations!

The year 1900 brings a new era, an era in which We shall see to it that Russia asserts it place in the world through both strengthening itself internally and externally. We shall use the autocracy that He has invested in Us as a force of good. We shall make sure that the life of the common man is not one of misery, not one of suffering, not one where death is a blessing of redemption. We shall make sure that our country possesses an Army and Fleet like any self-respecting power. We shall work towards the establishment of a modern economy, drawing inspiration from Britain, France, and Germany, the big powers of Europe. The working and living conditions of the common man is something that We shall look after from now on.

On the international field, We are extremely perturbed by events in China. We are sure that the Qing court intends to put these barbarious boxers down, and we are sure that they shall succeed in their righteousness. However, seeing as the civilised countries of the world must stand together, the Russian Empire proposes creating an international army to strike these brigands down. We are willing to commit fourteen thousand of our soldiers and marines to this army, as restoring order in China will not be an easy task. However we do not expect to shoulder the white man's burden alone. We call upon Germany, France, Britain, the United States, and all other civilised countries to come to our aid in helping the Qing court to remain guiding China and prevent it from falling into anarchy.

-Nicholas II, The Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias.

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
An Announcement from the Foreign Office

The United Kingdom can not stand back as its own people, foreign citizens, and Chinese Christians alike are under threat of persecution from a vile band of warriors, who as we speak are seeking to commit mass killings - the brutality of which is unspeakable. They aim nothing less than to overturn the civilised ways that have defined the Chinese people for millennia, and bring about a reign of terror in its stead.

Therefore, Her Majesty's Government can confirm that it is their full intention to accept the offer of the Russian Tsar in forming an international task-force in regards to the rebellion that plagues the Chinese Empire. We sincerely believe that this is nothing short of a most honourable endeavour in order to avoid the bloody horrors of the villainous Boxer rebels, and to maintain the virtues of peace and harmony for foreigners and Chinese alike.

- Viscount Cranborne, Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs

Brief history of modern Bulgaria



Bulgaria had never been a hotbed of liberalism, and the early nationalism of the Metternich era that agitated Serbs and Greeks never truly spread to Bulgaria. Some figures of authority, often religious ones, opposed the Greek-Phanariot domination of the Balkans but while they were asserting the existence of a distinct Bulgarian culture, their main goal was religious independence from the Greek patriarchate. Yet, as Serbia a fellow Slavic nation, was slowly experiencing support for nationalism, the movement spread to Bulgaria. At that time the pan-Slavist character of the first nationalist writings dissipated, as differences between Slavs were made more apparent.

In 1869, the Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee was created by Bulgarian emigrants. It was the work of a small radical nationalist community, influenced by Western revolutionaries. The movement grew in strength all over Bulgar lands and in April 1876, its members rose up. They weren't very numerous but hoped to gain support from the people and to expel the Turks from Bulgaria. The uprising wasn't truly successful, as the Bulgarian people didn't feel too concerned by the uprising. Local Muslims were attacked by the nationalists, but this was nothing compared to the Ottoman reaction.
Partly to avenge the deaths and to quell the rebellion, but mainly to set an example to other restless minorities, a large suppression campaign was conducted by the Turks. The idea was to punish all Bulgarians for the uprising, and dozens of villages and monasteries were destroyed by the Ottoman army. The West was outraged, and a conference was held in Constantinople, to force the Turks to give autonomy to the Bulgarians, but this proposal was ultimately refused. The Russians then waged a highly succesful war against the Ottomans, and in San Stefano gave Bulgaria independence.

The concert of Powers couldn't accept Russian dominance in the Balkans - as Bulgaria was aligned on Russia - and allowed the creation of a rump Bulgarian state, vassal of the Porte. Another part of Bulgaria was given autonomy, Eastern Rumelia. But the nationalistic sentiment had been awoken, and couldn't be ignored. The Bulgarian rulers of Eastern Rumelia soon made sure they would unite with Bulgaria, and a quick successful war against the Serbians who feared the rise of a large and strong Bulgarian state was all it took for the two Bulgarian states to unite.

However, the fact that Bulgaria didn't get to seize disputed Pirot or that Alexander - the first Bulgarian Prince - had agreed not to pursue further territorial changes in exchange for peace with the Porte brought instability. Alexander was toppled by Russian-aligned soldiers, brought back by Stambolov, the leading political figure, and then left the country for good. Stambolov needed a compromise candidate, and Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg became Bulgaria's second ruler. Stambolov had been an Austrian officer, and along with Stambolov ensured that relations with Russians cooled. Russia had threatened to occupy Bulgaria during the interregnum, and Bulgaria couldn't risk to anger Petersburg either, its foreign policy was thus ambiguous. Stambolov's death, and the renewed interest in Bulgarian irredentism however approached both nations again.

Bulgaria is now at crossroads, and if it is certain that the status quo will be impossible to maintain forever, it remains torn between Saint Petersburg, Vienna and Constantinople.

United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway
Office of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs,

The peoples of Norway and Sweden are of a sort well acquainted with the principle of the rule of law, and are as one in their desire for a state which maintains order to the benefit of its citizenry. The failures of the ruling regime in China to preserve peace and order in the country display a distinct lack of respect for orderly conduct in the society of the Qing. It is the position of the government of the United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway that the Qing Empire, were it fully dedicated to the cause, would be capable of restoring order to the country and suppressing the Boxers of their own accord. The inability of the Qing to act with due care and attention, however, compels the nations of the Christian world to act, both in their own defence and to prevent a total collapse of the structure of society in the Chinese interior.

Sweden and Norway are fully in support of the actions declared to be undertaken by our neighbour Russia to suppress the Boxer Rebellion and restore peace and prosperity to the Chinese people. Our support, as well, extends to London, and to the governments of any countries so empowered as to have the ability to assist in the intervention of the international coalition in China. International assistance is essential to end the conflict in China swiftly, and to ensure a lasting peace in which relations between the Orient and the nations of the western world can continue to grow and prosper, to the betterment of both parties.

-Alfred Lagerheim, Minister for Foreign Affairs

In August 1900 Alexander I of Serbia married Draga Mašin. It was a marriage that came from love, and it was intensely unpopular both in Serbia and internationally. Draga was 12 years his elder and not only was she a commoner, but the offspring of certifiably insane parentage. Additionally, she was a widow and had been sterile since an accident in her childhood. A "secret" that everyone except Alexander himself recognised. The public came to view her as an evil seductress who would whisper in the king's ear.

Following months of happy marriage, I announce that Queen Draga is pregnant.
- Alexander I of Serbia

The German Empire

It is with great pride that we enter the year 1900 as a strong and notable great power. Our place in the Sun is without doubt, and Germany is an international model of a functioning and growing society of innovation and progress. Our engineers are the most efficient, our inventors are the most ingenious and our military is without a doubt the mightiest. I look with pride upon the diligent worker, as his handicraft keeps the industrial production of our country at the forefront of Europe, and I also admire the fine and elegant ideas and ambitious initiatives of the businessmen and bankers who plan and improve upon our country on an international scale. Finally we have the most successful and most experienced gentlemen who own the factories that provide work for hundreds of thousands of Germans and the esteemed nobility who lead our armies to defend the Fatherland when the times are grim. Our arms are strong, our backs are firm and our minds a goldmine for both intellectual and material growth. I plan to ensure that Germany stays on this route, because it has granted prosperity to many and great glory to the German people.

Unfortunately, there are those who do not recognise German power and the rights of German citizens abroad. The Chinese have broken all codes of conduct, brought shame upon their country and violently assaulted envoys sent from a plethora of civilised countries, including those from the German Empire. This shall not be looked upon with inaction, for our very honour is at stake here. Our army and navy have been trained for an event like this, an event that forces us to bring down our boots and protest with our military might. We shall join the International Army with one thousand and five hundred men from the Marines and Army, together with six of our finest cruisers. We are confident that this will be enough to provide a core of disciplined and well-trained men to this Expedition of Justice. We shall show the Chinese what happens when you take up arms against German citizens and we shall imprint this event so deep in their national consciousness that they shall never dare express defiance against us again. With the blessing of God, we shall prevail and punish those guilty of these hideous crimes. Know that every man and woman in Germany will pray for our flawless victory against this shrewd enemy and that victory shall be granted to us because we are just and righteous!

His Imperial and Royal Majesty Wilhelm the Second, by the Grace of God, German Emperor and King of Prussia, Margrave of Brandenburg, Burgrave of Nuremberg, Count of Hohenzollern, Duke of Silesia and of the County of Glatz, Grand Duke of the Lower Rhine and of Posen, Duke in Saxony, of Angria, of Westphalia, of Pomerania and of Lunenburg, Duke of Schleswig, of Holstein and of Crossen, Duke of Magdeburg, of Bremen, of Guelderland and of Jülich, Cleves and Berg, Duke of the Wends and the Kashubians, of Lauenburg and of Mecklenburg, Landgrave of Hesse and in Thuringia, Margrave of Upper and Lower Lusatia, Prince of Orange, of Rugen, of East Friesland, of Paderborn and of Pyrmont, Prince of Halberstadt, of Münster, of Minden, of Osnabrück, of Hildesheim, of Verden, of Kammin, of Fulda, of Nassau and of Moers, Princely Count of Henneberg, Count of the Mark, of Ravensberg, of Hohenstein, of Tecklenburg and of Lingen, Count of Mansfeld, of Sigmaringen and of Veringen, Lord of Frankfurt.

Austria-Hungary

We stand with our allies in their decision to help bring an end to the barbarous Boxer rebels. They have been savage and cruel in their attacks and have murdered countless. Their bayonets have spilled the blood of Chinese and foreigners alike with unspeakable brutality. But their crimes, their atrocities, will not go unpunished. It is with great pride that I announce Austria-Hungary's involvement in this most righteous endeavor for peace and justice for all. In the interest of upholding peace and justice for all, and with the intent to end the atrocities which have ravaged the Chinese state and people, Austria-Hungary hereby pledges to commit a force of 300 Marines and three cruisers to join the international force against the Boxers.

-- Count Agenor Maria Adam Gołuchowski, Minister of Foreign Affairs

AFRICA

The Boers managed to fight a very effective guerilla campaign, with raiding parties blowing up bridges and railroads faster than their explosive stocks could manage. This turned out to be rather problematic as the Portuguese were now enforcing a blockade through Mozambique, completely strangling the Boer republics. Starved for anything else than bullets and food, the Boers continued heroically resisting the British as they lost all captured territory outside the republics themselves. Commando brigades of 3,000 each made life hell for the British and Canadians as they advanced, but despite everything the Boers could and did do, from better usage of the terrain to attracting foreign volunteers, the British still outnumbered the Boers heavily and after reinforcing, Britain was poised to launch offensives into the Boer Republics the next year.
THE AMERICAS

The Gold Standard Act was passed, concluding a long debate and political battle over what exactly backed the United States Dollar. The transition was very expensive, but with the US no longer spending tonnes of money on backing bimetallism, the US treasury was relieved of a massive burden and the dollar found itself in a much more stable position.

Agriculture is the basis of Mexico’s economy, employing most of the country and and generating most of the country’s income. As such, the Díaz regime continues to invest and attract foreign investment in these haciendas producing food and cash crops. Although the improvements are modest, the new cocoa plantations do succeed in bringing in more money.

The Mexican hinterland had long been infested with bandits, and as the 20th century dawned Díaz felt the need to extend his authority throughout the entire country. Doubling the size of the Rurales and increasing their pay to ensure their loyalty, these measures extended the iron grip of Díaz throughout the entire country.


A Rurale on horseback

President Sales was wary of potential financial troubles in his country and ordered the government to create a consistent budget surplus. Exactly how this was to be done remained in the dark, and not authorised to do anything the government did nothing to balance Brazil’s budget.

The government further moved to promote industry in the country, which did not go unnoticed by the Colonels. While they were not particularly pleased with these developments, one of them saw his profits increased drastically by claiming funds to mechanically process his coffee.

The Brazilian economy relied heavily on exporting raw goods, and to build upon this the President deemed it necessary to improve the nation’s export capacity. In line with this, the seaport of Rio de Janeiro was modernised, much to the benefit of the dairy farmers in Minas Gerais, but also to the British industrialists whose goods now swamped Brazilian markets.

ASIA

Afghanistan reforms its administrative divisions, aiming to remove the burden –and power– of administering entire regions from local governors by delegating power to lower executives. While this went surprisingly smoothly, the reform of the Afghan National Police and the Internal Intelligence Organisation did not go over so smoothly. 50,000 former conscripts were made into police officers and made to enforce the law in distant lands. The result was that while these reforms were successful, the police officers were generally hard-handed and unfriendly.

The United States kicks the war against the Filipino rebels into next gear, ordering its 30,000 troops on the peninsula to take the fight to Aguinaldo’s army. Whilst booking massive successes, Aguinaldo’s earlier decree that guerrilla warfare be the official strategy of the country was finally listened to, leading to a logistical nightmare for the US forces in the country, with ambushes and raids becoming the order of the day. It seemed to McKinley as if Philippine government would henceforth attempt to force a stalemate and force the Americans to withdraw.


Four soldiers of Company M, 28th Infantry Regiment of US Volunteers.

Already known as Asia’s most powerful army, the Imperial Japanese Army began the year clamouring for increased funding so as to ensure that its soldiers received the very best of training. The peculiarities of Japan’s political system allowed for this change to be granted almost immediately, and the Imperial General Headquarters began to put it into good use. Training drills were held in the mountainous regions of Japan, where soldiers were taught to fight in some of the harshest conditions around. Although not all of the soldiers were fans of this brutal training, it nevertheless produced stronger men.


Japanese soldiers on a marching drill.

Having triumphed over the Chinese navy mere years ago, Japan now possessed naval predominance in the Asian continent – and was intent on solidifying this status. Subsidisation of the naval shipyards followed in conjunction with government investment, where money was put to good use in expanding the naval facilities of the Empire. This was a boon for the Imperial Japanese Navy’s latest naval bill, which proposed the construction of powerful warships to boost Japan’s strength at sea. With patriotism in the navy rife, there was no problem encountered in gathering the necessary men and materials, and production began immediately.

With the majority of funding having been spent on military matters, there was not too much left on other matters. The Japanese government desired to spend it wisely on boosting the national economy, and began to invest in the upgrading of their railroads. The latest materials were purchased in an effort to revitalise the older transport networks, and modern techniques in wiring were adapted from those in Europe. By the end of the year, signs of improvement in Japan’s transport network had begun to show.

EUROPE
With the Boer War in full swing, Britain was determined to gain the lands of the Boer Republics. To boost the amount of troops coming in the Ministry of Information decided to put on a propaganda campaign, showing Boer atrocities. The Daily Telegraph was heavily invested in spreading these rumours, whilst also attacking the liberal party for its anti-war stance. As a result of this, the liberal party rifted and an election was called in which the Conservatives and Unionist won a sweeping victory.

Finally, the British Army was to undergo a massive reform as Army Council was created to govern the army and create a clear policy, ending the unclear balance of power between the War Ministry, the Adjutant-General and the Quartermaster General. In line with this, the post of Commander-in-Chief of the Forces was abolished and its responsibilities directed to a new General staff, tasked with preparing the army for war. This new system was instrumental in making the British Army a more efficient organisation

France embarks on a massive plan for naval expansion, laying down some twenty-five ships during the year. Whilst very expensive, and alarming to Britain and France, it was deemed necessary to protect French interests abroad.

With the possibility of war with Germany in the back of everyone’s heads, the government approves a plan to massively expand the military industry at Saint-Étienne so that it could in case of war better cater to the French army as this year it was expanded With this move creating a lot of jobs, Alexandre Millerand proposes to create a bigger industrial base around Bordeaux. The realisation of this made the city an economic hub, but the weight of French industry was still in the north.

After making the decision to pardon Alfred Dreyfus, the president lost popularity across society, but with the army in particular. Aiming to restore his popularity, Loubet toured the country. While the concern of an attack on him was always present, such an incident did not happen and the president ended his charm offensive without a scratch.

he German Emperor was a man who had always aspired for a strong navy, much like that of his mother’s. Backed by prominent individuals such as Admiral Von Tirpitz, his dream was one that would soon be achieved. A new Naval Law was passed in the Reichstag in the midway through the year. It called for the construction of a new range of ships no later than 1906, and would serve to merely affirm the moderate amount of ships called for in the First Naval Law. From battleships to cruisers, it ensured that the shipyards of Germany would have a busy time ahead of them.


One of the battleships produced as a result of the First Naval Law.

Despite the scientific advances discovered not only in Germany but around the entire world, the state schools of Germany were unfortunately rife with conservatism and thus missed out on the benefits of modern development. It was a product of a bygone era which many of the brightest minds had sought to overturn, one of which included the Kaiser himself. Appealing to the Parliament personally, he asked for a new piece of legislation to be passed in which the schools would be free to ditch the conservative ways of old and bring about a new modernised stance. The Act, however, encountered stiff opposition. Only after several rounds of debate and immense pressure from the Kaiser did the School Act of 1900 get passed – albeit heavily watered down. Annoyed at the legislative process of the Empire, the Kaiser instead decided to take matters into his own hands. He announced a programme of donating from his personal wealth to some of the top colleges and universities around the nation in return for adopting a modernised programme. Naturally, hundreds of universities and colleges fought for gaining the the prestige of the Kaiser. This paved the way for proper modernisation to begin throughout Germany’s educational system.

The agrarian past of Germany was not one that was easily forgotten despite its recent industrialisation, and the Empire saw fit to begin new investment into the agricultural sector. It would not only provide for a boost to the economy, but ensure that Germany became a self-reliant country. The state began to offer subsidies to those farms willing to grow sugar beets, a plant entirely suitable for the German climate. Thousands around the nation accepted the offer. This was a process that was assisted by increased investment into the mechanisation of Germany’s farms. Millions were spent in overcoming the outdated farming techniques that still remained popular amongst a great deal of the conservative population, and by the end of the year the plan had reached success – the sugar beet had become the staple crop of the German Empire


German farmers toiling in the fields.

Due to the deficit being only a year away from plunging Italy into debt, it was decided that imperative action had to be taken immediately. The Italian Parliament voted through a new law in the beginning of the year in which taxation upon both trading and tariffs would be reduced. The aim was to make for a more competitive environment in the Italian market, thus forcing local businesses to become more productive. It was a success, and Italy began to reap the benefits of capitalism. The effects were also noticeable in a newly announced imitative of the state, which hoped to bridge the gap between the poor south and the richer north by industrialising the south. The construction of state-owned factories was a resounding success, and even managed to attract local investors. The low corporation tax provoked the investors into fierce battles, which ensured that the region would enjoy immense industrial growth.

With Italian irredentist claims still lingering over both of its neighbours, France and Austria, it was deemed necessary that the Italian military was to improve drastically. A new training programme was introduced with the aim of not only increasing the skill of individual soldiers, but fostering loyalty to their country. Despite noticeable changes taking place in the effectiveness of the army, it was noted that the ruthlessness of the programme sometimes ended up lowering morale.


Italian officers assembled together.

Education was also a priority of the Italian state during the dawn of the twentieth century, and recognising that too many children went without school, the state decided to stamp out the problem immediately. A new series of schools were constructed throughout the country, so as to ensure that children whether rural or urban could all receive education. The project was successful, with 1900’s enrolment being the highest Italy had ever seen.

The 19th century ideal of Scandinavism was brought to life once more, after an iniative by the Swedish-Norwegian Ministry of Propaganda printed out hundreds of thousands of posters, all with a focus on the common links of the Scandinavian people – whether they were historical, cultural, or religious. The movement grew surprisingly quickly, appealing to a wide range of people, and culminated in a grand parade in Stockholm attended by several prominent Swedes, Norwegians and Danes alike.


One of many posters produced in Sweden-Norway.

As a large country with a small population, it was vital that Sweden-Norway took steps to ensure their infrastructural links were amongst the best. Investment in the roads spanning the nation took the forefront of the state’s attention, with existing routes being improvised by the use of bitumen and new roads planned between pre-existing routes and those smaller towns which were off the grid. Hundreds of towns found themselves newly linked to the road network, providing a boost to the economy.

The Sick Man of Europe was one overcome by a debilitating illness, having fallen far behind the other powers in the last few decades. But his mind was still strong, and sought to revitalise the decaying empire into that of a modern state. By Imperial Decree, the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire therefore proclaimed for the immediate expansion of industries - a difficult task for a country lacking any real industrial base. Nevertheless, efforts were spent in opening factories in the centre of Anatolia. Although they paled in comparison to those of industrial Europe, they were still a sign of modernisation in the empire - and attracted the attention of many curious citizens, rich and poor.


A newly constructed factory in the Ottoman Empire.

Having fallen behind the powerful nations of Europe partly as a negligence of industrialising the homeland, it was increasingly obvious that Spain had to take actions so as to remain a relevant actor in European - if not world - affairs. A new plan was announced by the central government in Madrid, detailing the construction of factories all throughout the south of the country. However, as a result of poor economic planning by a few incompetent ministers, the effort failed to produce as many factories as the state had hoped for. Nevertheless, Spanish industrial capacity did experience mild growth.

Aiming to both subdue the restless region of Catalonia by bringing it closer to the capital, and to provide job opportunities for labourers and local Catalans alike, it was decided that a new rail network would span from Madrid to Barcelona. What ensued surprised even the central government, as thousands of labourers from around the nation turned up to lay down the tracks. The project got off to a roaring start due to the surplus labour, with several investors eagerly awaiting its completion.


Spanish labourers resting by a new train.

Despite already possessing one of the better rail networks in the Balkans, Bulgaria was lacking in neither ambition nor the means to improve upon it. It was decided more had to be done to develop the military’s logistics, and to ensure that the people of the country were free to work where their talents could best be utilised. Funding was gathered so as to ensure the growth of the Bulgarian rail network, and it began almost immediately. The Tsaribrod – Sofia – Belovo line was connected to the Ruse – Varna line in the early months of the year, and the state began to look to connect other major cities to the lines. The effort was a success, with employment at an all-time high and the common people backing the project wholeheartedly.

Formed in 1899, the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union was initially a reaction to unfair taxation pushed by the Bulgarian government. As a peasant’s organisation, it led the country’s largest movement. With the election coming up and already possessing the support of the peasantry, it decided to form into a political party in early 1900 with the clear stance of challenging the incumbent National Liberals. Already wary of BANU, the government began to take action to deprive it of support. New initiatives began in order to support the farms of Bulgaria. Fertilisers were imported and subsidies were granted to farmers in order to expand cultivated land. However, a shortfall in funding meant that very few fertilisers were made available. Nevertheless the subsidies ensured that new farmlands were still created.

After occupying Bosnia for several years without any major flare-ups, it was seen as a rational choice by the Austro-Hungarian Army to begin the scaling down of stationed conscripts. Gradually over the year, up to 30,000 conscripts were given leave and allowed to return back to their homes or settle for a new life in Bosnia. This had the effect of not only reducing the military expenditure, but granting a boost to the local economy due to the surplus of labour now available to work in labour-intensive jobs such as those in factories or farming. This proved to be beneficial in light of the government’s investment into farming, where uncultivated lands across the empire were to be sown with crops of all sorts. Despite plenty of labour being available for the task, the farmland expansion was not as extensive as hoped. On the bright side the industries of Austria-Hungary received plenty of labourers from the disbanded conscripts, and productivity increased.

Possessing a long but underutilised coast across the Mediterranean, Vienna saw fit to begin tapping into its potential in order to stave off the deficit. New facilities were constructed alongside the coast, and merchant fleets proudly displaying the banner of the Austro-Hungarian Empire soon become an increasingly common sight across the Mediterranean Sea as trading links were expanded and diversified. It proved to be worth the investment, with immense profits soon flowing into the ports and the coastline’s economy revitalised.


A ship docked in an Austro-Hungarian port.

Having felt in a generous mood, the Tsar sent forth his representatives to meet with the leaders of the Trade Unions in the industrial centre of Moscow. There, he sought a chance from the usual policy of oppressing the Unions to instead placating them, and by extension the common worker, with benevolent laws. The representatives made the promise of securing 10 hour long work days with guaranteed minimum wage, alongside holidays on religious occasions and even the right of paid sick leave. Although the Unions were overjoyed, they swiftly began to clamour for more rights. The meetings began to become lengthier and lengthier, with both sides growing discontent at the lack of progress. Ultimately, the government stood by its original offers – offers that the common worker found to be a grand improvement over the previous conditions. However, relations between the government and the Trade Unions were still fraught with extreme tension.

With almost the entire length of the railroad was built through thinly-populated areas in the impassable taiga, the Trans-Siberian Railway had so far been an impressive project. It had yet to finish its connection to Vladivostok as of 1900, and with a new decree, its date of completion would be pushed back even further. The administrators in charge had realised it would be beneficial for both the military and economy alike to lay down a second railway, thus allowing for travel in both directions. Courtesy of the Tsarist prison camps, thousands of new labourers soon arrived to the harsh lands of Siberia, where they devoted their efforts to both finishing the original line and constructing the second.


Russian prison labour by the Trans-Siberian Railway.

Having been the Minister of War since 1898, General Kuropatkin was keenly aware of the many problems that plagued the Russian Imperial Army. With the masses in the army suffering from such problems like malnourishment and poor living quarters, it was clear that this was a situation that could go on no longer. Reforms were announced in which the homes and barracks of soldiers and officers alike were to be improved. Furthermore, rations were made available to the soldiers in not only larger quantities but also a more varied diet, from proper meat to vegetables. Although not enough funding was available to secure such improvements throughout the entire army, it did make some noticeable differences in those military bases closest to the cities.

A survey of Serbia’s transportation network allowed for the government to begin focussing its efforts on the modernisation of its roads and railways. Areas which were lacking were quickly identified alongside those where the roads had fallen into disuse. Fully aware that a strong economy and a united nation require the infrastructural links to hold it together, Serbia began to immediately invest in the construction of new roads. Although corruption was a major issue throughout the project, it still managed to achieve success as several new roads stretching across the country were opened by the end of the year.

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Double post

(Consider this a part of the main update.)


A cartoon from Punch Magazine.

In China, the world could not stand back as their innocent people were under threat. Nicholas II, the Russian Tsar, called for an international task-force to be formed and requested that foreign soldiers come to Beijing to defend the legations. Under immense pressure from the outside world, the Chinese Imperial Court reluctantly acquiesced to the demands. A small selection of soldiers from Europe and America, no larger than 300 in total, were stationed in the foreign legations.

Matters worsened after a young Boxer was captured by a German soldier and promptly executed. Thousands swarmed the foreign legations. The few western soldiers fought bravely; but their killing of the Boxers only angered the Imperial Court. Remaining Boxers began to slaughter all Christians they could find - whether they were Chinese or western. The Boxers cut the railway lines from Peking to coastal city of Tientsin, isolating the capital.

Angered, the Imperial Court began to lay out mines across from the Dagu Forts in order to ensure that a limited amount of foreign warships could gain access to Tientsin. The Allies disregarded this and began to sail down the rivers. The Chinese army opened fire; and a naval battle took place. It was a resounding victory for the Allies, but it had paved the road for the Empress Dowager Cixi giving full support to the Boxers. Unfortunately for her, the majority of China's regional armies promptly refused to put her decision into action.


The Battle of Dagu Forts, 1900.

However the Peking Field Force stood by Cixi's decision, and began to besiege the Foreign Legations. The few hundred foreigners scavenged for what supplies remained and awaited the inevitable assault, and the Chinese army attempted to frighten the foreigners out by setting fire to the surrounding buildings. The only effect of this was the destruction of the Hanlin Academy. Thousands of ancient texts were destroyed, and both sides promptly blamed one another. The Chinese switched tactics, and built barricades around the foreign legations. There they began to advance brick-by-brick, slowly tightening their grip on the foreigners.

The Allies had slowly been building up its presence in Tientsin. By June, it was large enough to break through the surrounding Chinese army and march onwards to Peking. Under the overall command of Major-General Alfred Gasalee, a contingent of 28,000 Japanese, 20,000 British, 14,000 Russians, 3,000 Americans, 1,500 Germans and 300 Austrians. Despite being severely outnumbered by the combined Chinese and Boxer forces on the march to Peking, a minor battle resulted in an overwhelming Allied victory and the disintegration of the opposing forces.The path was now clear to relieve the Foreign Legations.


Officers of the Six-Nation Alliance in Tientsin.

Facing them was the immense elite of the Chinese army. They stood defiant in modern forts, and were equipped with advanced weaponry such as modern Mauser repeater rifles and Krupp artillery. For all their glamour, neither the modern weapons nor the new forts could compensate for the lack of training of the soldiers and the backwardness of the Chinese military tactics.

Six national contingents advanced on the walls of Peking. Each had a gate in the Wall for its objective. The Japanese and Russians were delayed at their gates by Chinese resistance. The small Austrian contingent got lost. The Americans scaled the walls rather than attempting to force their way through a fortified gate. The Germans eventually succeeded in blowing a tremendous hole in the walls. However, it was the British who ended up winning the race to relieve the siege of the legations. They entered the city through an unguarded gate and proceeded with virtually no opposition.


American soldiers scaling the walls of Peking.

In the north, the Tsar of Russia began an assault on Manchuria. The remaining Chinese army and Boxer rebels put up a brave fight as they slowly fell back. Western newspapers reported that the Chinese forces treated Russian civilians leniently and allowed them to escape to Russia, even notifying that they should leave the war zone. By contrast, the Russian Cossacks brutally killed civilians who tried to flee in the Chinese villages. Boxer rebels promptly began to burn down Russian villages in a fit of revenge, and almost succeeded in annihilating a Russian army - but the effort was futile, and by September the entirety of Manchuria was occupied by Russia.

As the Allied soldiers celebrated their victory, the Empress Dowager Cixi announced that she was going on an inspection to Central China - promptly leaving Peking dressed in the clothing of a farm girl and hidden in an ox-cart. By the end of the year, the formerly neutral Chinese regional armies were subduing the remaining Boxers and Peking remained occupied. It was an immense victory for the Allies, who now only had one matter left to resolve: the peace treaty.